Ethnicity can be a difficult topic. There is disagreement over the nature of ethnicity and the names and characteristics that distinguish one ethnic group from another. As it is used here, ethnicity is largely as defined by Christoph von Fürer-Haimendorf. The names of some ethnic groups may have been changed to match those used by Ethnologue. SIL International, Ethnologue's parent company, is one of two agencies presently charged to maintain international standards defining ethnic groups.

This is an alphabetical list of Fürer-Haimendorf's ethnic groups. For geographic representation of these groups, consult the Geography page.

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A

Adi

Angami Naga

The Angami Nagas are an ethnic group consisting of around 125,000 people who live in the present-day Kohima district of Nagaland. The Angamis, who speak a Tibeto-Burman language, are known for their wet-rice cultivation on terraced hillsides and the elaborate woodcarvings on their houses, which mark the social status of the inhabitants. Today, Christianity has largely suppressed their traditional animist beliefs and culture.
Location: Nagaland

See also: Naga

Ao Naga

The Ao Nagas, a population of about 230,000 people, live in the present-day Mokkokchung district of Nagaland. They speak three different languages belonging to the Tibeto-Burman family. Their culture has been strongly influenced by Baptist missionaries, who arrived in their villages in the late nineteenth century. They practice slash and burn cultivation and are known for their elaborate men's shawls and log-drums.
Location: Nagaland

See also: Naga

Apatani

Apatanis are a population of roughly 35,000 who live in central Arunachal Pradesh and practice wet-rice agriculture in a valley about 1,500 metres above sea-level. They are largely animists, although Christianity (and Hinduism to a lesser extent) has recently gained influence. Apatanis speak a Tibeto-Burman language and renowned for their sophisticated agricultural methods and business acumen.
Location: Arunachal Pradesh

Badaga

The approximately 300,000 Badagas are agriculturalists, who live mostly in the Nilgiris mountains in Tamil Nadu, where they form a tribal-system with the Kotas, Todas and Kurumbas. Some Badagas live also in Kerala and Karnataka.

Betta Kurumba

The Betta (or Bette) Kurumbas are a population of about 35,000 who live in scattered areas of the Western Ghats in Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. They belong to a loose cluster of groups, whose boundaries and relationships remain unclear. Many settlements still have a boys’ dormitory and a girls’ dormitory. They were traditionally shifting cultivators who also collected and traded forest products, but many have now become wage labourers.

Bhil

The Bhils are a large, and once powerful, tribal population (approx. 10 million) comprised of several sub-groups speaking nineteen different (though related) languages. They live mostly in Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan but also in neighbouring states, too. Historically, they lived in forests and high hills. While their local occupation varies depending on the local environment, Bhils are primarily pastoralists, peasant farmers, fishermen and landless labourers.

Bhotia

'Bhotia' is a collective ethnonym for several groups of Tibetan origin settled in the northern parts of Nepal. Groups like the Sherpas, Gurungs and Tibetans, as well as the people of Dolpo and Mustang, are often subsumed under this term. Bhotias speak languages belonging to the Tibeto-Burman family and generally practice forms of Tibetan Buddhism or Bön religion. They usually settle at high altitudes and sustain themselves by grain cultivation, animal husbandry and trade.

Bondo

The Bondos are a population of approximately 8,000, who live primarly in the highlands of the Malkangiri and Koraput districts, Orissa but also in the contiguous areas of Andhra Pradesh and Chhattisgargh. They practice slash-and-burn agriculture but also cultivate rice in permanent fields in the flat valleys. They are noted for the heavy, brass jewellery worn by women, women’s shaved heads and women's hats.

Brahmin

Brahmin castes in India vary widely in local contexts, although all have high status and are generally associated with ritual activities or scholarly pursuits.

Bugun

The Buguns (formerly known as Khowas) are a small population (less than 1,000) who live in eight villages outside the town of Rupa in western Arunachal Pradesh. They speak a Tibeto-Burman language and have had close historical interaction with their neighbours. Their clothes and jewellery, for example, show influences from Monpas and Sherdukpens, and their religion is a mixture of animism and Tibetan Buddhism.
Location: Arunachal Pradesh

C

Chakhesang Naga

The Chakhesang Nagas are a group created in the 1960s and mainly made up of the former Eastern Angami Nagas. They inhabit the areas west of the state capital Kohima, in the Phek district of Nagaland. They speak Tibeto-Burman languages and are known for their complex, multi-vocal singing tradition. Today, Christianity has largely suppressed their traditional animist beliefs and culture.
Location: Nagaland

See also: Naga

Chang Naga

The Chang Nagas are a group of about 61,000 people living in the present-day Tuensang district of Nagaland. They speak a Tibeto-Burman language and were feared as head-hunters and warriors. Today, Christianity has largely suppressed their traditional animist beliefs and culture.
Location: Nagaland

See also: Naga

Chenchu

The Chenchus are a population of approximately 27,000 traditional hunter-gatherers who live mostly in Andhra Pradesh, with a few villages in Orissa, too. Since the mid-20th century, Chenchus have begun to assimilate into local peasant society and many have become settled agriculturalists or wage labourers.

Cheruman

The Cherumans (sometimes subsumed under ‘Pulayan’) are a low-status caste of landless agricultural labourers. Their population is about 350,000, and they live primarily in central Kerala, especially in the hill areas.

Chetti

Chettis (Chettys) are a small tribal population of about 5,000 who live mainly on the Kerala side of the Western Ghats but also in Tamil Nadu. Their villages are interspersed among Mullu Kurumba villages in the same region. At the core of their social system is the joint family compound (or tarwar, better-known as tarward among Nayars). They have no connection with the Chettiyar (or Chetti) mercantile caste in south India.

D

Digaro-Mishmi

The Digaro-Mishmis, or Digarus, formerly Taraon, are one of three Mishmi in the eastern part of Arunachal Pradesh. The Digaros, who live in the Lohit River valley, are a small population, about 8,000, who are closely related to the Miju Mishmis and less closely to the Idu Mishmis. Digaros speak a Tibeto-Burman language, and most are animists, although both Hinduism and Christianity have gained influence in recent years.
Location: Arunachal Pradesh

G

Gadaba

The Gadabas are a population of about 8,000, who live mostly in the highlands of Koraput District, Orissa. Speaking a Dravidian language, they practice slash-and-burn agriculture but also cultivate rice in permanent fields in the flat valleys. They are noted for their sophisticated system of irrigation in terraced fields.

Galo

Galos are a population of about 35,000 living in central Arunachal Pradesh who practice both shifting cultivation and terraced rice cultivation. Living close to the Assam border, Galos, who speak a Tibeto-Burman language, have historically interacted with non-tribal, largely Hindu populations. Today, while they are predominately animist, many Galos have converted to Christianity.
Location: Arunachal Pradesh

Gond

The Raj Gonds are a population of about 200,000 who live mainly in the Adilabad District of Andhra Pradesh, but also in neighbouring districts and states. They belong to a large, amorphous group of Gonds(approx. 4 million), who speak a variety of languages and follow diverse cultural practices. While the economy and material culture of the Raj Gonds differ little from that of their Hindu neighbours, their social system follows the pattern of other tribal (or Adivasi) groups in the region. Historically, the Raj Gonds were landowning agriculturalists, but during the 20th century much of their land was lost to the state, other peasant groups and industry. Today, the term ‘Raj Gond’ is not commonly used, in part because these people no longer rule their territory.

Gurung

More than 400,000 people are estimated to belong to the Gurung community of Nepal. They live in the hill districts, especially Syabja, Kaski, Manang, Lamjung and Gorkha. They usually live in large villages, often surrounded by terraced fields. They earn their living from grain cultivation, animal husbandry (especially sheep), trade and the manufacture of woollen blankets and textiles. Historically, and even today, many Gurungs enlist as Gurkha soldiers in the British army. They practice a form of Tibetan Buddhism and speak Tibeto-Burman languages.

H

Hill Miri

The Hill Miris (formerly Miri) are population of 15,000 who live in central Arunachal Pradesh and speak a Tibeto-Burman language. Closely related to Nyishis and Apatanis, their houses, clothing and ornamentation are nevertheless distinct. Traditionally they hunted, practiced shifting cultivation and lived in large longhouses, with several hearths, in settlements perched on spurs and hilltops. Today, many Hill Miris have moved into towns and become small businessmen.

I

Irula

The approximately 200,000 Irulas are spread across the upland areas of Tamil Nadu but also Kerala and Karnataka. Traditionally hunter-gatherers, they have now largely taken up shifting cultivation and wage labour.

J

Jen Kurumba

The Jen Kurumbas (Jennu Kurumbas) are a population of about 40,000, most of whom are shifting cultivators who live in scattered areas of the Western Ghats in Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. They belong to a loose cluster of groups, whose boundaries and relationships remain unclear. Many settlements still have a boys’ dormitory and a girls’ dormitory.

K

Kadar

The Kadars are a small (and decreasing) population of about 2,000 traditional hunter-gatherers who live primarily in the forests on the Kerala side of the Western Ghats, but also in Tamil Nadu.

Kannadiga

Kannadigas are speakers of Kannada (about 35 million), the main language of Karnataka, who are also the mainstream ethnic groups in the state.

Kanikkar

The Kanikkars (Kanikkarans) are a population of about 20,000 who live in the southern ranges of the Western Ghats, mostly in Kerala but also in Tamil Nadu. They were traditionally shifting cultivators who also collected and traded forest products, but many have now become wage labourers.

Kathkari

The Kathkaris are a population of about 13,000 who live in Maharashtra and Gujarat. Traditionally they were forest hunter-gatherers but most have now become landless agricultural and construction labourers.

Konyak Naga

The Konyak Nagas are a group of more than 245,000 people inhabiting the present-day Mon district of Nagaland and the areas bordering Arunachal Pradesh and Burma. The tribe is subdivided into the Lower Konyaks on the Assamese side and the Upper Konyaks on the Burmese side. They are best known for their elaborate, individualized headdresses, their head-hunting tradition and their armed resistance to British colonial administration. The Konyaks have a long tradition of making muzzle-loader guns, metal ornaments and wooden sculptures. Today, Christianity has largely suppressed their traditional animist beliefs and culture.
Location: Nagaland

See also: Naga

Kota

The Kotas are a population of approximately 1,000 living in the Nilgiri mountains in Tamil Nadu, where they form a tribal-system with the Badagas, Todas and Kurumbas. They were traditionally artisans (potters & blacksmiths) and musicians, a role that they continue to play for the other local ethnic groups.

Koya

The Koya are a sizable tribal population (about 3400,000), who live mainly in the Warrangal District of Andhra Pradesh but also in adjancent districts and states. Today they are largely settled agriculturalists and have assimilated into mainstream society, although much of their land has been lost to the state and to non-tribal landowners.

Kurumba

L

Lambadi

The Lambadis (Lambadas, Banjaras)are a large group (est. 6 million) of semi-itinerant people with many local sub-divisions. Originally from Rajasthan, they are now spread widely across western and central India. Known for their colourful dress and ornate jewellery, their traditional occupations were nomadic cattle rearing, small goods trading, begging and (more recently) settled agriculture.

Lhomi

The Lhomis (Kar Bhote) are an ethnic group whose name suggests that they originated in the southern regions of Tibet. They live mainly in the northern parts of the Arun River valley in eastern Nepal. They speak a Tibeto-Burman language and have strong linguistic and cultural similarities with Sherpas and Tibetans. They practice a form of Tibetan Buddhism or Bön religion, often including elements of shamanism. They earn a living by grain cultivation, animal husbandry and sometimes trade. Their number is estimated to be approximately 50,000.

Limbu

The Limbus, who belong to the Kiranti group, live in the hill districts east of the Arun River in eastern Nepal. Their number is estimated to about 280,000. They follow a shamanistic religious tradition and are known for their rich mythology and elaborate gold ornaments. They earn a living mainly from agriculture, and their settlements are usually surrounded by terraced fields. Historically, and even today, many Limbus enlist as Gurkha soldiers in the British army.

M

Malapantaram

The Malapantarams (Malapandarams) are a small population (estimates range from 1,000 to 6,000, but the lower number is more credible) of hunter-gatherers who live primarily in the forests on the Kerala side of the Western Ghats, but also in Tamil Nadu. Some have now taken up employment in the government forest department.

Malayarayan

Malayarayans (Malai Arayans) are a population of about 25,000 shifting cultivators who live largely on the Kerala side of the Western Ghats. They build stone-circles and dolmens to commemorate ancestors.

Malayali

Malayalis are speakers of Malayalam (about 32 million), the main language of Kerala, who are also the mainstream ethnic groups in the state.

Mannan

The Mannans, who live in the central upland districts of Kerala, number about 8,000. They used to hunt, gather and fish for food in the forest, but today most practice shifting cultivation or sell forest products.

Mappila

The Mappila (Moplahs, Moppilas) are a community of Muslilms living in northern Kerala, since perhaps as early as the 7th c. AD. Numbering about 8 million (roughly 25% of the population of Kerala), their traditional occupations have been mostly fishing and trading.

Minyong Adi

The Minyongs are one of many Adi groups (formerly Abor), who total about 120,000 people and live mostly in the Siang River valley. Their food production is focused on terraced paddy fields. They are largely animists, although some have converted to Christianity, and some practices are influenced by Hinduism. They speak a Tibeto-Burman language.
Location: Arunachal Pradesh

Mishmi

Monpa

The Monpas (also known as Drakpas) are a population of approximately 45,000, largely pastoralists and farmers, who live on the western edge of Arunachal Pradesh, close to Tibet and Bhutan. The major Monpa subgroups are Tawang, Lish, Dirang and Kalaktang, all of whom speak a Tibeto-Burman language but with considerable variation. Much of Monpa culture shows Tibetan influence, and most people practice a form of Tibetan Buddhism (Gelukpa sect) mixed with pre-Buddhist elements.
Location: Arunachal Pradesh

Mullu Kurumba

The Mullu Kurumbas (Kurumans, Kurumbars)number about 26,000 and live on the Kerala side of the Western Ghats, although some groups also live in Tamil Nadu. They belong to a loose cluster of groups, whose boundaries and relationships are still unclear. They were traditionally hunters, gatherers and traders of forest products, but now many have taken up shifting cultivation and wage labour.

Muthuvan

The Muthuvans (Muduvans) are a population of about 18,000 who live on the Kerala side of the Western Ghats. They were traditionally shifting cultivators who also collected and traded forest products, but many have now become wage labourers.

N

Naga

Other Naga ethnic groups shown in the photographs include the Khiamniungan (formerly Kalyo-Kengyo) Nagas in the Tuensang district of Nagaland and acroos the border in Burma, the Phom Nagas in Longleng district, the Sangtam Nagas and Sema Nagas in central Nagaland and the Yimchunger (also Yimchungrü) Nagas in the area north of the Khiamniungan. Common to all Naga groups are their tradition of head-hunting and their elaborate material culture, which marks social status gained by head-hunting raids, feasts of merit and economic wealth.
Location: Nagaland

Namboothiri

The Namboothiris (Nambudiris) are a high-status, orthodox Brahmin caste in Kerala with a population of approximately 250,000. They are renowned for their performance of Vedic rituals and traditional observance of purity rules.

Nayar

The Nayars (Nairs) are a large (approx. 5 million), high-status caste of landowners in Kerala known mainly for their matrilineal descent system and joint-family house compound. They live in nearly all the districts of Kerala and represent about 15% of the state’s total population.

Newar

The Newars are the main inhabitants of the Kathmandu valley, even though many families have scattered all over Nepal. Their number is estimated to be more than one million. They are best known for their elaborate art and architectural traditions as well as their role in trade between Tibet and India. They traditionally follow a syncretic religion consisting of Buddhist and Hindu elements.

Nyishi

The Nyishis (formerly known as Daflas) are one of the most populous groups in Arunachal Pradesh. Their population of nearly 100,000, who speak a Tibeto-Burman language, are scattered over a large area in the centre of the state, including the southern border and the capital of Itanagar. Bangnis, in the northern interior, are usually considered part of the Nyishi category. Traditionally Nyishis hunted, practiced shifting cultivation and lived in large longhouses, with several hearths, in settlements perched on spurs and hilltops. Today, many Nyishis have moved into towns and become small businessmen.

P

Paliyan

The Paliyans (Palliyans)are a population of approximately 10,000, living mostly in Tamil Nadu, but also in Kerala. Traditionally they were hunter-gatherers, whereas today many have taken up wage labour.

Paniyar

The Paniyars (Paniyans) are a tribal population of approximately 25,000-30,000. They were a mainly hunter-gatherer population who have now largely become wage labourers in the state forest departments of Kerala (Wayanad and Kannur districts) and Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore District), along the Western Ghats.

Pulayan

The Pulayans (sometimes conflated with Cherumans) are a low-status caste in Kerala with a population of over 1 million, who work mainly as landless agricultural labourers.

R

Rai

The ethnonym 'Rai' denotes a number of groups settled in the eastern hills of Nepal, surrounding the Arun River valley. Together with the Limbus and Yakkhas, they form the larger group known as Kiranti. All Rai groups follow a shamanistic religious tradition and are known for their rich mythology. The approximately 500,000 Rais live mainly from agriculture, and their settlements are often surrounded by terraced fields, which at lower elevations are irrigated for wet-rice cultivation. Historically, and even today, many Rais enlist as Gurkha soldiers in the British army.

Raj Gond

See Gond

Reddi

The Konda Reddis live in the forested hills of the Eastern Ghats, mostly in three districts in Andhra Pradesh (East Godavari, West Godavari, Khammam), but also in the Koraput District of Orissa. The Konda Reddis, until the later part of the 20th century, practiced slash and burn cultivation. Most speak a dialect of Telugu. Today they number approximately 60,000, and they are fast being assimilated into mainstream Hindu culture.

S

Santal

The Santals (Santhals) are a large (approx. 6 million) and powerful population who live in eastern India, mostly in West Bengal, Jharkhand and Orissa. Santals live in a variety of environments, including hilly forests, agricultural plains and industrial estates. Santali (an Austro-Asiatic language, which has its own script) is one of only two tribal languages to be recognised as a national language by the Government of India.

Sherdukpen

The Sherdukpens are a small population of approximately 2,000 who live in western Arunachal Pradesh, mostly in and around the town of Rupa. Living at an elevation of about 1,500 metres, they are largely farmers and traders, who practice a form of Tibetan Buddhism (Nyingmapa sect) combined with pre-Buddhist elements. They speak a Tibeto-Burman language and are known for their high levels of education and elaborate weaving.
Location: Arunachal Pradesh

Sinhala

Numbering approximately 16 million, Sinhalas are the largest and most powerful ethnic group in Sri Lanka. Most Sinhalas are Buddhist, although a significant minority are Christian. Sinhalas work in a wide variety of occupations.

Sherpa

The Sherpas are the main inhabitants of high altitude areas in northeastern Nepal. They are of Tibetan origin, speak a Tibeto-Burman language and practice a form of Tibetan Buddhism. Most of today's approximately 110,000 Sherpa are settled in Solukhumbu District of eastern Nepal. Agriculture and pastoralism (mainly yak and cattle) are the mainstay of the Sherpa economy. In recent decades, Sherpa have also begun to work in the tourism sector, mostly as porters for trekking expeditions.

T

Tamang

The Tamangs live mainly in Kabhrepalanchok, Dhading, Sindhupalchok and Lalitpur districts of central Nepal. However, Tamang communities can be found all over the hilly and mountainous regions of Nepal. The approximately one million Tamangs generally practice a form of Tibetan Buddhism or Bön religion and make a living from agriculture. They speak a Tibeto-Burman language.

Thakali

The approximately 15,000 Thakali speak a Tibeto-Burman language and live mainly in the Thak Khola area of the Mustang district in central Nepal. They are traditionally agriculturists and businessmen, profiting from the trade route along the Kali Gandaki river that connects Tibet to India. Today, many Thakalis work in the tourism industry because the central section of their settlement area is on a popular trekking route.

Tharu

The Tharus live in parts of the Nepalese wet lowlands along the Indian border. Before the drainage of these areas in the twentieth century, the malaria-resistant Tharus lived isolated along the malaria infested jungles and developed their own distinct culture and religion. They usually settle in small villages and make a living from agriculture. Most Tharus follow a form of Hinduism that also contains animist elements. They speak a language belonging to the Indo-Aryan family, and their population is estimated at more than 1.2 million.

Toda

The Todas are a small and dwindling group of pastoralists (approx. 1,600 ) who live in the Nilgiri mountains in Tamil Nadu, where they form a tribal-system with the Kotas, Badagas and Kurumbas.

U

Ulladan

The Ulladans (Ullatans, Mala Ulladans) are approximately 18,000 and live in the high hills of central Kerala, where they used to be hunter-gatherers, although today many practice shifting and settled cultivation and work as wage labourers.

V

Varli

The Varlis (Warlis) are a tribe of approximately 400,000 who live mainly in the uplands of southern Gujarat and northern Maharashtra. Traditionally they were semi-itinerant forest-dwellers, but now most have adopted settled agriculture or wage labour. They are well-known for their mural paintings, with colourful designs and stick figures.

Veddah

The Veddahs, also known as Veddas, are a small group of hunter-gatherers (approx. 2,500) in Sri Lanka who have a unique place in South History. Their caves and campsites, which were recorded in the 19th century, seem to have been in continuous occupation from the late Stone Age. Since the mid-20th century, they have largely assimilated into mainstream Sinhala society, although a few clusters still live in the forest.

W

Wancho

The Wanchos (also Wanchus) are a small ethnic group living in southeast Arunachal Pradesh, bordering the area of the Konyak Nagas in Nagaland. They speak a Tibeto-Burman language and are known to have practiced headhunting. Wanchos have strong cultural similarities with the Konyak Nagas and are often subsumed under the ethnonym 'Naga.'
Location: Arunachal Pradesh

Other ethnic groups from Nepal shown in the photographs include various Hindu castes scattered all over Nepal, such as the high status Chetris and Brahmins as well as lower status groups like Kamis (blacksmiths) and Damais (musicians). Ethnic groups represented in only a few images include the Magars of western and central Nepal, the Majhis, Kaikes, Sarkis, Thakuris, Sunuwars as well as Tibetan refugees.