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“...INTRODUCTION
The Post Disaster Needs Assessment (PDNA) assesses the impact of the April 25, 2015 earthquake in Nepal and defines a recovery strategy. This volume provides detailed description of sector specific damage, losses and recovery needs.
Each sector chapter includes the following sections:
a) Summary;
b) Pre-disaster baseline and analysis of context that existed prior to the disaster;
c) Post-disaster context including sector preparedness and response;
d) Assessment of the damage and loss including costs;
e) Assessment of disaster effects and impact;
f) Recovery needs and strategy including costs;
g) Implementation arrangements; and
h) Assessment methodology.
In the analysis, damage is defined as the cost to replace durable physical assets (buildings, equipment, facilities and machinery) that were damaged or destroyed. Loss refers to changes in financial flows due to the temporary absence of infrastructure, increased or new demands (operational costs) due to the disaster, lost revenues...”
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“...and human settlements sector the most. The total effect (damage and loss) on this sector is valued at NPRs 350,379 million, with total damage valued at NPRs 303,531 million and total loss at NPRs 46,748 million. The damage accounts for physical housing damage and damage to household goods, the loss for demolition and debris clearance, transitional shelters and rental loss. The damage and loss for the real estate sector have also been included. This sectoral assessment targeted 31 districts identified as affected districts by the Government of Nepal (GoN). The baseline was provided by the 2011 census, and the housing damage information was provided by the DRR Portal (http://drrportal.gov.np/)1 which summarize the information collected by Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of Nepal.
The damage data was categorized as "Fully Damaged" and "Partially Damaged". However, due to the lack of uniform criteria for partial damage, the damage value was calculated based on a certain logic (described...”
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“...RC Frame 16,971 10,182
HH goods 16,382
Real estate sector 4,210
Total Damage 303,631
Loss Demolition and debris clearance 9,781
Transitional shelters 14,968
Rental Loss 1,999
Real estate 20,000
Total Loss 46,748
Total Effect (Damage and Loss) 350,379
Recovery of housing sector is proposed to be based on principles of equity, inclusion and participation of communities through an owner driven reconstruction approach while ensuring 'build back better' considerations. However, taking into account that only 19.7% of women own land and houses, recovery efforts will take account of the needs of female headed houses, senior citizens and other vulnerable social groups who may not have land ownership. The affected families will be supported to reconstruct, repair and retrofit their houses depending on the extent of damage with financial support, technical guidance, social mobilization and skill up gradation. Financial support in tranches will be based on compliance to disaster resistant...”
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“...Training, facilitation and quality assurance costs 2.5% 7,841
Urban Planning (including heritage settlement planning) 2% 6,273
Total 327,762
It may be noted that number of houses to be reconstructed has been calculated on the basis of number of households made homeless. Considering the average number of households per house for each district, the total requirement was calculated as 609,938 houses to be constructed. This number may change after much needed house-to-house damage assessment.
Pre-Disaster Context and Baseline
2.1 Policies on Housing and Settlements
Several Constitutional Acts and policies are particularly relevant for housing and settlements sector. The 2007 Interim Constitution of Nepal stresses the responsibility of the state to provide land especially to the economically weak and/or landless people. The 2012 National Shelter Policy further stresses the right to safe and adequate housing to all.
The 2007 National Urban Policy aims for (i) settlement and economic activities...”
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“...these buildings suffer from deficient construction practices. While seismic detailing has become more common in recent years, older buildings have no ductile detailing.
4) Wood and bamboo buildings: These buildings are constructed of timber or bamboo with wooden plank, thatch or bamboo strip walling materials with flexible floor and roof. These suffered less damage from the earthquake due to their light weight.
Table 3: Existing building typology in the affected 31 districts (Ref CBS 2011)
Low Masonry strength Cement masonry based Reinforced Concrete Frame Wood and Bamboo based
58% 21% 15% 6%
Post-Disaster Context
3.1. Building damage analysis
A large-scale impact survey was conducted by the Ministry of Home Affairs (MoHA) during the month following the earthquake. Results show that a total of 498,852 houses have fully collapsed or are damaged
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“...damaged. This data does not categorize the damage by building type or urban / rural context. This assessment was conducted rapidly and is not a technical assessment. Past earthquake experiences elsewhere have shown that the balance of destroyed to partially damaged buildings is rarely this high, though the particular nature of this earthquake may explain this. For operationalizing the recovery strategy, a more rigorous technical house-to-house assessment will be necessary.
The catastrophic impact of the earthquake on the built environment of Nepal is primarily the result of the significant seismic vulnerability of unreinforced masonry buildings predominant throughout the country. There is a general lack of awareness of seismic risk in communities, coupled with lack of dissemination of improved construction practices (particularly rural areas), and a slow mechanism for enforcement of relevant building codes.
Most of the areas where buildings suffered damage were not subject to enforcement of the...”
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“...Types of Damage in Masonry Buildings: Lack of integrity between different structural members and inherent weak properties of the materials was the main cause of failures in the masonry buildings. The main types of damages are listed as follows:
• Parapet and gable wall toppling
• Delamination of low strength masonry walls
• Out of plane toppling of walls
• Corner separation of walls
• Various types of wall failures under in-plane loading such as diagonal cracks, sliding cracks, crushing of piers, failure of spandrels
• Collapse of floor and roof due to loss of vertical load bearing elements such as walls
Main Types of Damage in RC Building: Damage to RC buildings is also predominantly because of lack of strength and ductility. The main causes of failures are as follows:
• Toppling of parapets, infill walls and partition walls
• Damage to Infill-Walls: Diagonal, sliding cracks, crushing of piers in infill walls
• Soft storey failure (collapse of building due to concentration of damage in a ...”
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“...Total Effect (Damage and Loss)
350,379
Recovery Needs and strategy
The following guiding principles should form the basis of strategy and planning of post disaster recovery:
1. Participation of the community by empowering them to take control of reconstruction of their own houses and ensuring facilitation of owner-driven reconstruction.
2. A comprehensive view of housing reconstruction to include holistic habitat development including basic services and community infrastructure. Building Back Better should translate into a concept of "safer settlements".
3. Reconstruction should be a vehicle to build long-term community resilience. Reducing vulnerabilities and strengthening community capacities to mitigate future disasters by improving construction practices for majority of the building stock in the country.
4. Strengthening the local economy through reconstruction and processes favorable to the poor, marginalized and informal sector. Reconstruction should provide an opportunity for the...”
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“...homes were in fact salvageable. Owners of RC frame buildings are in a difficult situation as buildings may be perilously standing and need special skills and tools to be demolished. The disposal of debris will need proper planning and environmental considerations, so as to avoid blocking waterways or damaging agricultural lands.
Planning for Reconstruction: Planning for reconstruction will require a comprehensive, rigorous and transparent house-to-house damage assessment and eligibility survey to understand the nature and extent of damage and eligibility for the government reconstruction assistance program. Detailed policy packages for reconstruction of houses, repairs and retrofitting covering all types of affected social groups particularly the poor and vulnerable, tenants and women households, and families living in difficult
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“...consideration, particularly for material transportation, cash transfer and technical facilitation and monitoring.
5.1 Building Damage and Eligibility Survey for Recovery
It is critical that a house-to-house damage assessment and eligibility survey is carried out in order to identify specific damages to homes in order to ascertain the eligibility for housing recovery assistance in a uniform and transparent manner. The survey will also present the opportunity to identify vulnerable households (people living with disability, senior citizens, widows and single mothers etc) who may need additional support in house construction and in attaining ownership. It should be conducted as soon as possible, before conditions of homes are altered due to the monsoon, or self-recovery (i.e. early reconstruction) or demolition by households. The assessment will link a particular damage state and building typology to a specific safe reconstruction activity (example: repair of a wall, or complete reconstruction...”
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“...involving about 62 engineers and 15 senior engineers and 31 District Coordinators.
This whole human resource structure for facilitation of such a large recovery effort will have to be managed by the proposed National Reconstruction Authority, The total five year budget for the cost of the socio technical facilitation including human resources, training, quality assurance and other governance functions is provided as 2.5% of total needs.
5.5 Technical Committee
Identification of causes of heavy damage to buildings like soil profiles, improper design and detailing, poor construction practice, etc. will be the basis for development of feasible technical solutions for improvement. Measures will have to be identified for reconstruction of each building typology. Similarly,
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“...mechanisms to promote insurance of the housing stock that is created under reconstruction and recovery initiatives.
Assessment Methodology
The assessment of damage, loss and consequent recovery needs has been based on overall damage data provided by Ministry of Home Affairs through the DRR portal. The data was collected through DDRC from VDCs and categorised as fully collapsed and partially damaged houses. As per the damage data, 498,852 houses have fully collapsed and 256,697 houses are partially damaged.
Field visits were made to Chautara (Dist. Sindhupalchowk), Khokna (Dist. Lalitpur), Bhaktapur (Dist. Bhaktapur), Gangabhu (Kathmandu), Sankhu (Dist. Kathmandu) and Gorakha (Dist Gorakha) to understand damages (type and extent) and government assessment methodology. Our discussions with government officials involved in the damage data collection at district level indicated that buildings deemed damaged to the point that repair would be too expensive were counted as fully damaged.
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“...Housing Damage Calculation
The 2011 Census was used to define the distribution of building types at each district. Building typologies were simplified into three predominant types: (1) low strength (mud mortar based) masonry, (2) cement based masonry and (3) reinforced concrete frame. Damages were distributed between building types based on vulnerability curves developed by NSET. Details on the damage distribution to different type of buildings are given in Annex-1.
The size of each house type was estimated at 600 sqft for low strength masonry (average size according to the "National Living Standard Survey 2010/11, Nepal"), 900 sqft for cement mortared houses (reflecting more well-to-do households), and 3,000 sqft for reinforced concrete (predominantly urban and multistorey).
Cost per sq.ft, was calculated as NPRs 700 for low strength masonry, NPRs 1,200 for cement based masonry and NPRs 2,000 for reinforced concrete. These rates are based on prevailing market rates.
Total damage was calculated...”
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“...occupation.
Table 9: Rental Loss Calculation
Districts Average Monthly Rent (NPRs) Damaged Rental Units Destroyed Rental Units
Kathmandu 21,350 30,182 21,988
Bhaktapur, Lalitpur, Patan 14,850 5,415 13,063
Other districts 4,200 20,492 7,958
6.5 Transitional Shelter Cost Calculation
The number of transitional shelters required is based on households affected by fully destroyed houses. As per the available data 609,938 households will need some form of temporary sheltering solution, based on the damage data and the number of households per house.
Cost estimations of temporary shelter are based on the shelter packages guide by the National Planning Commission. The package should provide approximately 300 sq.ft, of covered space, roofed by 2 bundles of CGI sheets, and leveraging salvageable materials. Considering use of salvaged materials, additional cost of NPRs 24,540 will be required for such a shelter.
6.6 Needs for Housing Reconstruction and Retrofitting Calculation
The need for housing...”
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“...Logic - Damage, Loss and Needs
Damage
1) Physical Housing Damage
A. Baseline data: Source Census 2011
B. Typologies: Using the construction type for foundation, walls and Roof as given in the Census we have derived the Building Typologies as follows
1. Stone/Brick in Mud Mortar (In flexible CGI sheet + Thatch roofing)
Type of outer wall: Mud bonded bricks/stone + Unbaked brick + Others + Not Stated
2. Stone/Brick in Cement Mortar (In Flexible CGI Sheet and Rigid RC roofing)
Type of outer wall: Cement bonded bricks/stone - Type of foundation of house: RCC with pillar
3. RC: Reinforced Concrete Building
Type of foundation of house: RCC with pillar
4. Wood & Bamboo
Type of outer wall: Wood/ planks + Bamboo
C. Categorization of Damaged Building into Typology and Damage Costs
The average floor area for different building types are taken from limited surveys conducted earlier. The average floor area for three different type of buildings are given below:
Table 10: Typology and Damage Cost
Typology...”
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“...types considering the ratio of different type of buildings in each districts from census data as well as the ratio of possible collapse and partly damage derived from fragility functions for different intensities. Fragility functions from Guragain, R. 20152 are used for different type of masonry buildings and HAZUS, 20033 for Reinforced Concrete Buildings. Considering the vulnerability of non-engineered RC buildings, pre-code functions were used.
Complete damage functions were used to calculate the ratio for complete damage while the functions for extensive damage were used for calculation of ratio for partial damage.
The factors derived from the relative vulnerability of the buildings for different intensities are given below:
Table 12: Factors derived from the relative vulnerability of the buildings for different intensities
MMI PGA Damage LSM CBM RC
VI 0.12 Complete 1.00 0.00 0.00
Partial 0.93 0.07 0.00
VI+ 0.17 Complete 0.93 0.07 0.00
Partial 0.60 0.31 0.09
2 Ramesh Guragain, 2015...”
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“...2: Building Damage Gradation & Categorization
Detailed (qualitative) assessment of buildings is required for building damage gradation and categorization which forms the basis for planning response, recovery and rehabilitation of these buildings. The extent of damage is dependent not only on the severity of the earthquake shaking but also on the building typology and quality of construction. Therefore it is important to understand distinct purpose of the building damage gradation and building damage categorization. Damage gradation is done with the purpose of defining and developing type and extent of engineering intervention based on the damage, whereas building damage categorization is to facilitate financial assistance which is based on % of damage and resource requirement to repair, retrofit or reconstruct.
Any building damage categorization or gradation should take the following into account:
• Building typology
• Damage typology (crack types)
• Damage intensity
• Damage location to...”
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“...Table 16: Broad Damage grade indicators taking housing typologies into consideration. It is also important to clarify the purpose of damage categorization.
Building damage gradation Details
G1 No structural damage, slight non-structural damage
G2 Slight structural damage, moderate non-structural damage
G3 Moderate structural damage, heavy non-structural damage
G4 Heavy structural damage, very heavy non-structural damage
G5 Destruction - very heavy structural damage
Detailed indicators are required based on the parameters presented above. Department of Urban Development and Building Construction, Government of Nepal has already developed guidelines on the above, however that needs updating taking into account Nepalese building typologies and experience gained from the 2015 Nepal Earthquake.
Building Damage Categorization
For financial assistance, a weightage based building damage categorization method is required which needs to be developed taking into account damage at component level,...”
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“...AND POPULATION
Summary
Background: In line with the broad framework of the Post Disaster Needs Assessment (PDNA) undertaken by the overall leadership of the National Planning Commission, the Ministry of Health and Population (MoHP) conducted a comprehensive assessment for health and population sector, which aimed at collecting and collating information on damage, losses, and post-disaster needs for reconstructing and rebuilding the country with the broader concept of building back better. The work accomplished by the assessment team has provided (i) analysis of the situation before the earthquake, (ii) a thorough assessment of damage and losses incurred following the earthquake and an estimation of the effect of the earthquake on health and population related services; and (iii) identification of needs for recovery and reconstruction in immediate, intermediate and medium terms.
The following section presents the summary of the findings.
The situation before the earthquake: Nepal was making...”
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“...with concerned agencies and stakeholders and management of increased case load for treatment including trauma cases.
Estimates of Damage and Loss: Total damage and loss due to the earthquake is estimated to be NPR 6.33 billion of which the public shares 84% rest being that in the private sector including NGO and Community owned service providers. While the value of damages is estimated to be 5.2 billion NPR, the estimate of losses is 1.1 billion NPR. Severely affected 14 districts account for around 88% (including 29% of central hospitals and health infrastructures) of the total value of damage and losses while other districts account for 11.4%. Gorkha, Sidhupalchowk and Dolakha are the hardest hit districts in terms effects of the earthquake sharing 22.4% of damages and losses, after the central level health infrastructure which alone account for 29% of damage and losses.
Table SI: Estimates of damages and losses Amount in million
Estimates of damages Public (NPR) Private (NPR) Total (NPR)...”
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