2 The Myth 1 The scriptural sources Orthodox Vaishnava scholars generally accept the idea that Krishna lived five thousand years ago at the conjunction of the dvapar and kali ages. They also make unconvincing attempts to show that Krishna, as well as Braj, Vrindaban, and Radha are all somehow mentioned in the Vedas.1 The name Krishna, literally meaning 'black', does indeed occur in the Vedas, but there is no apparent connection with the hero or god of later scriptures.2 In the Rgveda the term krsnam, meaning 'night', is used in opposition to arjunam, meaning 'day' two abstract concepts that had some influence in the formation of Krishna and Arjuna as characters in later epic literature.3 In narratives about Krishna's childhood the role of his fair companion is played by Balarama, his elder brother. Another reference in the Rgveda that might conceivably have some relevance for later developments in the mythology of Braj is a mention of the abundance of cows on the banks of the river Yamuna.4 The oldest narratives of the early years of the gods we now call Krishna and Balarama refer to them more frequently by the names Vasudeva and Sankarshana. A remark made by Panini, a grammarian of the fifth or fourth century BC, to the the effect that Vasudeva was the object of 'adoration' or 'devotion' (if this is what he meant by bhakti) has been the subject of much discussion.5 No less controversial 1 E.g. B. Chaturvedi in Dwivedi (ed.) 1972, pp.14 ff., with reference to Rgveda 1.10.7, 1.31.7, 1.86.3, 1.92.4, 1.101.8-11, 5.45.1-6, 6.10.3-4, 8.41.7, 8.46.9, 8.51.5, 10.25.5, 10.62.7; Brajvallabhsharan in Vmdavanahk, pp.22-44, 47-8, also referring to late Upanishads, Sanhitas, and Tantras. Arguments for c. 3,000 BC are summarized by P. Mital 1966, pt.2 pp.10-11, and A. Goswami, pp.129-144. 2 For discussion of Vedic references cf. Preciado-Solis, pp.11-17, 35-7. 3 Corcoran, p.34. 4 Rgveda 5.52.17, quoted, for example, by Jiv Goswami in Krsnasamdarbha (118) ad 372, p.305. 5 Asthddhyayi 4.3.98. See Dandekar's discussion of references in Panini and Patanjali, and Preciado-Solis, pp. 19-23, 27-9, 36-7, for a survey and assessment of scholarly opinions. 22