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SHRESTHA ET AL.
(b) Timber frame connection (Bonapace, 2003)
(c) Cross-sectional detail of wall (Beckh M, 2006)
(d) Wooden framework in wall of tiered temples (Dwg by Shukla S., NCSHS)
Figure 2. Tiered temple construction details.
aligned along the same axis, which results in the development of eccentric moment during load transfer. The setback configuration makes the top roofless stable during strong shaking and often results in toppling.
Most of the tiered temples also faced delamination of the outer wythe of the brickwork as shown in Figure 3c. This type of failure is usually expected in thick masonry brickwork, which is characterized by poor bonding and lack of connection between the outer and inner layers of the brick wall (Figure 2c) (Beckh 2006). In addition to partial damages, some of the monuments (mostly in Kathmandu Durbar Square) were totally collapsed (Figure 3d).
The Shikhara temples of Kathmandu Valley have tall slender masonry walls, constructed with or without timber...”
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“...system. The temple was heavily damaged during the Mw 8 Great Nepal-Bihar Earthquake of 1934 (Figure 8b) and was reconstructed from the plinth level in 1935. In 2000, both roofs of the temple were restored completely, and some repair work in the wood-crafted elements was carried out (KVPT 2000).
After the 2015 Gorkha earthquake, a comprehensive visual damage assessment of the temple was prepared, as shown in Figure 9a. It was found that two types of mortar (lime and mud) had been used during reconstruction in 1935. Most of the ground floor brick walls were built up with lime mortar (Figure 9b), whereas the first-floor brick walls and top-floor walls were constructed with mud mortar. The top-floor masonry wall was heavily damaged, with significant diagonal tension shear cracks through the brick and mortar (Figure 9d). All four walls of the top story experienced out-of-plane deformations (Figure 9c) with a maximum deflection of 45 mm. There were minor cracks in the inner wall of the first floor...”
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“...of the Kathmandu Valley: The Shikharas, 1st Edition Ratna Pustak Bhandar, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Langenbaeh, R., 2010. Earthquake resistant traditional construction is not an oxymoron. The resilience of timber and masonry structures in the Himalayan region and beyond, and its relevance to heritage preservation in Bhutan. Proceedings of the International Conference on Disaster Management and Cultural Heritage, 12-14 December, Bhutan.
Nienhuys, S., 2003. Options for reconstruction and retrofitting of historic pagoda temples, reconstruction of temples in Kathmandu, Kathmandu Valley Preservation Trust, Lalitpur, Nepal.
NRICPT (National Research Institute for Cultural Properties), 2016. Project for investigation of damage situation of cultural heritage in Nepal, Tokyo.
Parajuli, H. R., 2012. Determination of mechanical properties of the Kathmandu World Heritage brick masonry buildings, in Proceedings of the 15th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Lisbon, Portugal.
RILEM, 1997. Determination...”
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